103rd Boston Marathon



The start of the Wheelchair Division for the 103rd Boston Marathon found a field of 60 men and 9 women ready for the challenge.

Yearly Race Synopsis

1977 - Thanks to the assistance provided by the New England Chapter of the National Spinal Cord Injury Foundation, Boston was designated as the site for the National Wheelchair championship. The added incentive resulted in a seven-member field and a thrilling duel between defending champion Hall and challenger Curt Brinkman of Utah. While Hall managed to hold off his rival, the fierce competition enabled him to improve his own record by nearly 18 minutes when he crossed the line in 2:40:18. Just over an hour later, the finish line crowd would welcome the first woman to complete the Boston Marathon in a wheelchair. Equally significant was an exchange uniting the wheelchair racers and runners. Cresting Heartbreak Hill, eventual champion Bill Rodgers and fifth-place finisher Tom Fleming slowed to tap Hall on the shoulder and offer words of encouragement. "The interaction was a sign that we were fully accepted as athletes," said Bruce Williamson, who finished third in the wheelchair division.
1978 - The wheelchair race expanded to 20 competitors, including two women, as the Spinal Cord Injury Foundation continued to provide assistance for participants traveling to Boston. Among those benefiting from this program was George Murray of Florida, who registered the first of his two record performances at Boston. He finished 2:26:57, improving the former mark by nearly 14 minutes. Brinkman (2:34:38) was again second, while Hall (2:35:22) was third, despite a personal best time. California's Susan Schapiro won the women's title in 3:52:35.
1979 - Ohio's Kenneth Archer and defending champion George Murray engaged in a two-man race nearly the entire length of the course, before Archer (2:38:59) pulled out the victory by a narrow margin of one minute, 14 seconds. Sheryl Bair of Sacramento, CA, won the women's race in a world-best time of 3:27:56.
1980 - Benefiting from improved technology, Curt Brinkman posted a winning time of 1:55:00 to become the first person to eclipse the two-hour barrier in a wheelchair. Despite the time, Brinkman's triumph was the result of an unfortunate mishap to rival George Murray. Cresting Heartbreak Hill, Brinkman trailed race leader Murray by a full mile. However, entering Cleveland Circle, one of Murray's wheels became entangled in the streetcar tracks, and his chair was damaged. Although a quick fix enabled him to continue, he slowed considerably, and finished eighth. A similar benchmark was eclipsed in the women's race when Sharon Limpert of Minnesota finished first in 2:49:04, to become the first woman to break three hours and establish an American record in the process.
1981 - In a complete reversal of the last year's top two finishers, 1980 runner-up Jim Martinson posted a winning time of 2:00:41, to defeat defending champion Curt Brinkman by more than six minutes. Rounding out the top four found 1977 champion Bob Hall in third, and 1978 winner George Murray fourth. Candace Cable (Brookes) established an American and course record of 2:38:41, en route to winning her first of six Boston Marathon titles.
1982 - Jim Knaub, a former nationally-ranked pole vault competitor from Long Beach, CA, held off George Murray to establish a world record and register the closest margin of victory in Boston Marathon history. His time of 1:51:31 was just two seconds ahead of Murray. Candace Cable-Brookes, who finished 12th overall, lowered her world record to 2:12:43 to capture her second straight Boston title.
1983 - In an encore performance, Jim Knaub posted his second consecutive title, established a world record (1:47:10) and became the first person to break 1:50:00. Sherry Ramsey of Colorado captured the women's title in 2:27:07. Following this year's event, the Boston Athletic Association officially sanctioned the wheelchair race and began to present awards to all division winners. As a result of this policy, the Boston Marathon began to attract a large number of international competitors. This trend was most evident on the men's side.
1984 - The Boston Marathon crowned its first foreign champion, when Andre Viger of Sherbrooke, Quebec, overcame strong head winds and a cold drizzle to win in 2:05:20. Viger credited his win to a custom-designed, $1,400 racing chair, which he referred to as "chromemoly" due to its high metal content. Candace Cable-Brookes, seeking a third title, encountered mechanical difficulty, and Sherry Ramsey registered her second title in 2:56:51.
1985 - A pair of world record performances were turned in by a pair of former champions. Candace Cable-Brookes became Boston's first three-time wheelchair champion, with a 2:05:06. George Murray, the 1978 winner, out-dueled Boston's fastest finishing field to date to finish in 1:45:34. Following him across the line was defending champion Andre Viger (1:47:23) and two-time champion Jim Knaub (1:48:44) as the trio registered the first, third, and fourth fastest times ever at Boston.
1986 - Taking advantage of ideal race conditions, Andre Viger broke away from the pack early and was never challenged. His winning time of 1:43:25 established a world record, and was more than five minutes quicker than runner-up George Murray. Candace Cable-Brookes, who withstood a strong challenge from upstart Angela Ieriti of Canada, captured her second consecutive title and fourth overall in 2:09:28. With the support of principal sponsor John Hancock, the BAA presented prize money for the first time in race history. The winners of the men's and women's wheelchair race received $2,500. Viger earned an additional $7,500 for establishing a world record.
1987 - Despite a chaotic start which saw several competitors involved in a chain-reaction crash, defending champions Andre Viger and Candace Cable-Brookes overcame the difficulty to successfully defend their titles. Viger, whose chair was knocked over in a problematic start, took the lead just beyond the halfway point, and went on to record his third overall title in 1:55:42. Cable-Brookes, who had to hastily repair a flat tire, overcame two-time champion Sherry Ramsey to win her third straight title and fifth in the past seven years in 2:19:55.
1988 - In an attempt to eliminate the problems encountered at the previous year's start, race officials employed a controlled start, in which the competitors were escorted down the steep hill at the beginning of the race. A little over a half-mile into the race, where the course levels off, the competitors were free to race at their own pace. The strategy worked to perfection and has remained in effect to present day. However, not even the controlled start could slow the progress of 23-year-old Frenchman Mustapha Badid, who posted a world record in 1:43:19. Badid might have received a strong challenge from Andre Viger, but the defending champion suffered a flat tire while crossing the train tracks in Ashland. The women's race proceeded as normal, with Candace Cable-Brookes winning her fourth consecutive title and sixth overall in 2:10:44. The race attracted 56 competitors, representing its largest starting field to date.
1989 - For the first time in the history of the sport, eight competitors crossed the line in under 1:40:00. Leading the charge was Philippe Couprie of Pontoise, France, whose world record time of 1:36:04 was just 41 seconds ahead of three-time champion Andre Viger. Defending champion Mustapha Badid, who served as Couprie's training partner, finished eighth. Although Candace Cable-Brookes established an American record of 1:52:34, she trailed Denmark's Connie Hansen, who bested the former world record by more than eight minutes and the course mark by 15 minutes with a stunning 1:50:06.
1990 - For the second consecutive year world records were set in the men's and women's races, as Mustapha Badid recaptured his title, while Jean Driscoll of Champaign, IL, enjoyed a record-setting debut. The first racer to break the 1:30:00 barrier, Badid's time of 1:29:53 improved the former record by more than six minutes. Franz Nietlispach of Switzerland, who shared the lead with Badid through 18 miles, finished second in 1:31:31. Driscoll (1:43:17), who became the first woman to finish the marathon in under 1:50:00, was joined by Ann Cody-Morris (1:44:09) and defending champion Connie Hansen (1:44:32), as all three broke the former world record.
1991 - Jim Knaub emerged from a record field of 81 wheelchair racers, including 71 in the men's division, to capture his third overall title and establish an American record of 1:30:44. Knaub, who was just 51 seconds shy of the world record, became the first American to win the race in seven years. For the second year in a row, Jean Driscoll captured the women's title in a world record performance of 1:42:42.
1992 - Jean Driscoll again broke her own world record en route to her third consecutive Boston title, while Jim Knaub notched his second straight title, his fourth overall, and his second world record on the Boston course. Following several lead changes, Driscoll took control of the race on the downhill past Boston College, and went unchallenged to the finish. Her time of 1:36:52 marked an improvement of nearly 6 minutes over the former record. Knaub eliminated all sense of drama in the men's race when he assumed the lead early and never relinquished it. He finished in 1:26:28 - three minutes and 25 seconds ahead of the former mark.
1993 - In a replay of last year's race, Jean Driscoll and Jim Knaub successfully defended their titles in a world record mode. Even more remarkable, each race unfolded in similar fashion. Knaub took off from the start, as if daring anyone to keep pace with him. His winning time of 1:22:17 was four minutes better than his previous mark. Although no one could keep pace, several gave chase. Mustapha Badid was second in 1:23:43, Andre Viger was third in 1:23:56, and Craig Blanchette (fourth), Jim Mattern (fifth), and James Briggs (sixth)-all broke the former record. On the women's side, Driscoll was challenged by Connie Hansen and Louise Sauvage of Australia through 11 miles before she broke away for good. She finished in 1:34:50, or 2 minutes and 2 seconds better than her previous record.
1994 - Jean Driscoll's string of four consecutive Boston titles in world record time appeared to be in jeopardy when she contracted a case of food poisoning during race weekend. Added to her dilemma was a fast start by Louise Sauvage. However, similar to the race two years before, Driscoll took control on the back side of Heartbreak Hill and crossed the line in 1:34:22 - a record by 28 seconds. The men's race also resulted in a world record, but this time it was Heinz Frei of Switzerland, a six-time winner of the Berlin Marathon, who set the new standard in 1:21:23.
1995 - For the first time since 1987, neither the men's nor women's race produced a world record performance. Although strong head winds were responsible for the slower times, they could not prevent Jean Driscoll from capturing her sixth straight title. Her time of 1:40:42 was more than six minutes slower than the year before, but still seven minutes ahead of runner-up Deanna Sosoma. Franz Nietlispach, Switzerland, upset defending champion and compatriot Heinz Frei, to capture his first Boston title in a personal best time of 1:25:59. Also included in the field was Bob Hall who celebrated the 20th anniversary of his 1975 performance by placing 23rd in 1:47:41 - a full 1:10:19 faster than in 1975.
1996 - The 100th edition of the Boston Marathon drew a record 101 entrants for the wheelchair race. The men's race pitted 1994 champion Heinz Frei against 1995 winner Franz Nietlispach who took the early lead in this year's edition. Frei, who trailed by as much as 100 meters early, caught Nietlispach at the eight-mile mark, and slowly pulled away. His winning time of 1:30:14 was easily ahead of runner-up Philippe Couprie (1:34:00). Through 18 miles, the women's race was a three-way battle between Jean Driscoll, Louise Sauvage, and Candace Cable. Like many of her former races, Driscoll took control during the hills and pulled away to victory in 1:52:56. It was her seventh straight win, equaling the mark for most Boston victories set by Clarence DeMar.
1997 - Although the men's and women's races unfolded in familiar patterns, the respective endings offered a new look. The change was most evident on the women's side, where Louise Sauvage dethroned seven-time champion Jean Driscoll. The two approached Cleveland Circle together, where Driscoll's chair overturned and her left rear wheel punctured after colliding with the streetcar tracks. As was the case with George Murray 17 years earlier, Driscoll was able to finish the race following a quick fix, but any shot at victory was gone. Sauvage took the title in 1:54:28, while Driscoll was second in 2:01:40. On the men's side, Franz Nietlispach took control early and was never challenged. His time of l:28:14 was almost seven minutes ahead of runner-up Philippe Couprie (1:34:09) and marked his second title in three years.
1998 - While the race result was identical to the previous year, the 1998 race was unlike any other in the 24-year history of the wheelchair division. Seven-time champion Jean Driscoll appeared to have reclaimed her title and surpassed the legendary Clarence DeMar for most Boston Marathon wins, but it was Driscoll who was passed just inches before the finish line. Defending champion Louise Sauvage, who trailed by as much as 50 yards on Boylston Street, defied the odds by making up the deficit over the final three-and-a-half city blocks of the course. Driscoll was raising her arms in victory when Sauvage slipped by to break the tape. The two were credited in an identical time of 1:41:19. The men's race lacked a similar air of excitement but was equally impressive. Franz Nietlispach broke away from the pack by the end of the first mile and made a solo run at the record, before finishing 29 seconds shy in 1:21:52.

Wheelchair #1 wearing his laurel wreath and first place medal talks with a police escort following 1999 race.

Wheelchair Road Racing Classifications
The following system is used for wheelchair road racing at the Boston Marathon. The Open Division is composed of Classes 3 and 4, and the Quad Class incorporates Classes 1 and 2.

Class T1: May use elbow flexors to start (back of wrist behind pushing rim). Hands stay in contact or close to the pushing rim, with the power coming from elbow flexion. The old technique is to use the palms of the hands, pushing down on the top of the wheel in a forward direction.
Anatomical capability - have functional elbow flexors and wrist dorsi-flexors. Have no functional elbow extensors or wrist palmar-flexors. May have shoulder weakness.

Class T2: Usually use elbow flexors to start, but may use elbow extensors. Power from pushing comes from elbow extension, wrist dorsi-flexion, and upper-chest muscles. Additional power may be gained by using the elbow flexors when the hands are in contact with the back of the wheel. The head may be forced backward (by neck muscles), producing slight upper-trunk movements.
Anatomical capability - have functional elbow flexors and extensors, wrist dorsi-flexors, and palmar-flexors. Have functional pectoral muscles. May have finger flexors and extensors.

Class T3: Have normal or nearly normal upper-limb function. Have no active trunk movements. When pushing, the trunk is usually lying on the legs. Usually use a hand-flick technique (or friction technique) for power. May use the shoulder to steer around curves. Interrupt pushing movements to steer and difficulty resuming the pushing position.
Anatomical capability - have normal or nearly normal upper-limb function. Have no abdominal muscle function. May have weak upper-spinal extension.

Class T4: Have backward movement of the trunk. Usually have rotation movements of the trunk. May use trunk movements to steer around curves. Usually do not have to interrupt the pushing-stroke rate around curves. When stopping quickly, the trunk moves toward an upright position. Use abdominals for power, particularly when starting, but also when pushing.
Anatomical capability - have back extension, usually including both upper and lower extensors. Usually have trunk rotation (i.e., abdominal muscles).

Note: Classification systems are developed by analyzing the sport; they reflect differences in movement between athletes who have or lack the function of key muscle groups. Functional systems also take into account the relative importance of various muscle groups in performing. For example, it may not be critically important whether a wheelchair road racer has finger flexion if athletes with quadriplegia use the same back-hand technique. Functional classification systems are still developing, and existing systems will be analyzed and revised as necessary.

All photos this article courtesy of FAYFOTO.

Editor's Note: The Editorial Department gratefully acknowledges the cooperation of the Boston Athletic Association and its staff for sharing much needed material relative to the 103rd Boston Marathon and the Wheelchair Division. Without such assistance, this article could not have been developed.

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